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A Study on the Condition of Temporary Houses after Disasters:Focusing on Container Houses
Abstract
This research carries out an inquiry into temporary housing in disaster-stricken regions and a survey regarding the operational status of containers employed as building structures. As a practical application strategy, it puts forward the idea of constructing temporary housing in disaster areas by leveraging containers. Containers feature a modular design, and their inherent advantage of being separable and combinable endows container-based housing in disaster zones with extensive potential for implementation. By arranging and organizing container units in diverse ways, it becomes straightforward to meet the specific housing requirements of different groups of disaster victims.
1. Introduction
Even amid the rapid advancement of modern science and technology, natural disasters continue to pose an inescapable threat to human societies. When catastrophic events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, or typhoons strike, the impact extends far beyond tragic human casualties—widespread collapse of residential buildings often inflicts the most severe material and economic damage. A striking example is the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake in China: this disaster alone destroyed approximately 3.47 million residential structures, and the loss of housing assets accounted for 27.4% of the total economic losses incurred. In the aftermath of such crises, ensuring timely access to safe, stable shelter for disaster-affected populations thus becomes an urgent and pivotal priority in post-disaster relief and reconstruction efforts.
Modular construction, as an innovative and efficient building approach, operates on a prefabrication principle: cubic unit modules are first manufactured in controlled factory environments, where key components—including interior finishes, mechanical systems (such as plumbing and ventilation), and electrical infrastructure—are fully integrated and installed before leaving the factory. Once transported to the target site, these prefabricated modules undergo simple, streamlined assembly to form functional buildings; crucially, they can also be conveniently disassembled, relocated, or repurposed for other uses when needs change. Due to its standout advantages—such as significantly shortened construction timelines, reduced on-site labor requirements, and strong cost-effectiveness—modular construction has gained growing traction across multiple fields, with prominent applications not only in residential complexes and commercial buildings but also in temporary facilities and public infrastructure projects.
Against this contextual backdrop, the present study focuses on analyzing real-world cases of post-disaster temporary housing, with a specific emphasis on the practical application experiences of container-based buildings. Through this case analysis, the research aims to explore the feasibility, potential application scenarios, and optimization paths of repurposing containers as temporary shelter solutions for victims of natural disasters.
As a typical form of modular architecture, the research on container housing is not a single technological exploration, but rather relies on a multi-stage, systematic research process (including needs assessment, scheme design, prototype testing, on-site verification, and other links). It is committed to achieving the following two core objectives, thereby exerting its comprehensive value in disaster response and international cooperation:
- Realize “immediate housing response” after sudden disasters to provide rapid support for disaster-stricken people
The primary research objective of container housing is to break through the limitations of traditional temporary housing, such as “long construction cycles and high deployment difficulty”. It ensures that within the golden rescue period (usually within 72 hours after a disaster) following events like earthquakes and floods, temporary housing that is ready for immediate occupancy can be deployed and constructed for disaster-stricken people, preventing them from falling into survival difficulties due to the lack of fixed shelter. This objective can be specifically implemented through two aspects:
- Build a “stable and human-centered living environment” for disaster-stricken people: It not only meets the basic needs of shelter from wind and rain, and protection against cold and heat, but also alleviates the psychological impact caused by disasters through rational spatial division (such as sleeping areas, public activity areas, and sanitation facilities) and the configuration of basic living amenities (such as simple kitchens and charging ports). This helps people quickly adapt to the temporary living situation and gradually restore their daily life order;
- Provide efficient support for emergency management in disaster-prone areas: Relying on the characteristic of “standardized units” of container housing, rescue teams can realize unified registration, on-demand allocation, and dynamic scheduling of housing resources, reducing problems such as idle materials or uneven distribution. At the same time, the standardized housing layout also facilitates subsequent management work such as personnel statistics and health monitoring, improving the accuracy and efficiency of emergency response in disaster-prone areas.
- Facilitate convenient assistance and rescue cooperation in overseas disaster scenarios
Considering the frequent occurrence of natural disasters worldwide, the research on container housing will also focus on “cross-border rescue adaptability”, aiming to break down geographical, logistics, and cultural barriers to make overseas disaster rescue more efficient and targeted. This can be advanced through two main directions:
- Provide “regionally customized” solutions for global rescue: In response to the climatic characteristics (such as high temperature and humidity in Southeast Asia, and severe cold with heavy snow in Northern Europe), disaster types (such as flood prevention needs for tsunamis in coastal areas, and earthquake resistance needs in mountainous areas), and cultural habits (such as the demand for living space privacy in some regions and layout taboos related to religion) of different countries or regions, develop highly adaptable customized container housing schemes. This enables rescue materials to quickly adapt to local needs and promotes the upgrading of global rescue from “general support” to “targeted response”;
- Explore a synergistic development path between “rescue public welfare and industrial value”: On the basis of exporting customized container housing for overseas rescue, further promote the market-oriented promotion of mature schemes. Through international standard-compliant product certification, technology licensing, or direct sales, it can not only provide recipient countries with long-term reusable temporary housing resources but also create economic benefits through overseas market expansion. This achieves the dual value of “enhancing the country’s right to speak in rescue efforts” and “driving the export profits of related industries”.
2. Overview of disasters and temporary housing
2.1. Classification system for disasters
The Emergency Database (EM-DAT) provided by the non-profit Disaster Epidemiology Research Center (CRED) divides disasters into several types.
Table. General classification of EM-DAT.
Disaster Group | Disaster Subgroup | Definition | Disaster Main Type |
Natural | Geophysical | • A hazard originating from solid earth. This term is used interchangeably with the term “geological hazard”. | Earthquake, Mass movement, Volcanic activity |
Meteorological | • A hazard caused by short-lived, micro- to meso-scale extreme weather and atmospheric conditions that last from minutes to days. | Extreme temperature, Fog, Storm | |
Hydrological | • A hazard caused by the occurrence, movement, and distribution of surface and subsurface freshwater and saltwater. | Flood, Landslide, Wave action | |
Climatological | • A hazard caused by long-lived, meso- to macro-scale atmospheric processes ranging from intra-seasonal to multi-decadal climate variability. | Drought, Glacial lake outburst, Wildfire | |
Biological | • A hazard caused by the exposure to living organisms and their toxic substances (e.g., venom and mold) or vector-borne diseases that they may carry. Examples are venomous wildlife and insects, poisonous plants, and mosquitoes that carry disease-causing agents, such as parasites, bacteria, or viruses (e.g., malaria). | Epidemic, Insect infestation, Animal accident | |
Extraterrestrial | • A hazard caused by asteroids, meteoroids, and comets as they pass near earth, enter the Earth׳s atmosphere, and/or strike the Earth, and by changes in interplanetary conditions that affect the Earth׳s magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere. | Impact, Space weather | |
Technological | Industrial accident | – | Chemical spill, Collapse, explosion, Fire, Gas leak, Poisoning, Radiation |
Transport accident | – | Air, Road, Rail, Water | |
Miscellaneous accident | – | Collapse, Explosion, Fire | |
Natural disasters—such as earthquakes, floods, and typhoons—often trigger direct and severe damage to residential structures, with house collapse being one of the most immediate and devastating consequences. In the chaotic aftermath of such crises, providing temporary shelters for disaster victims thus becomes a top priority in relief work: these shelters are not just a basic material need to shield people from the elements, but also a key prerequisite for stabilizing victims’ lives, alleviating post-disaster panic, and laying the groundwork for subsequent reconstruction.
Across the globe, countries adopt distinct construction modes and material selections when building temporary shelters, tailored to their respective geographical conditions, resource availability, and technical capabilities. For instance, some regions may prioritize lightweight steel structures or prefabricated board houses for their balance of durability and ease of assembly; others might utilize locally sourced materials like eco-friendly bamboo or fire-resistant composite panels to reduce transportation costs; and in recent years, repurposed containers have also emerged as a popular option in many disaster-prone areas.
Notably, these variations in construction methods and materials directly translate to differences in practical outcomes. In terms of construction duration, for example, prefabricated modules (like standardized container units) can often be assembled and put into use within a few days, while traditional on-site construction using brick and mortar may take several weeks— a critical gap when every hour counts in post-disaster relief. In terms of living comfort, shelters made with high-performance thermal insulation materials or reasonable spatial designs offer better protection against extreme temperatures and noise, significantly improving victims’ quality of life. Ultimately, these factors—construction speed and living comfort—jointly influence victims’ overall satisfaction with the temporary housing, as they directly relate to how well the shelters meet their daily needs (such as privacy, sanitation, and safety) and psychological expectations for a “stable temporary home.”
2.2. Temporary housing types
The type of temporary housing varies from country to country, depending on various factors, such as the type of natural disasters, environmental conditions and economic factors.
Compared with steel frame and prefabricated houses, container houses have the advantages of simple assembly, relatively short construction period and low cost.
Containers’ widespread adoption as a building medium delivers multifaceted value: it not only serves as a reliable temporary shelter for disaster victims and displaced populations worldwide but also opens up a practical and scalable pathway for container recycling. Traditionally, a large number of shipping containers end up idle or discarded after completing their logistics lifecycle, and repurposing them into buildings effectively diverts these metal structures from landfills, extending their service life while reducing the resource waste associated with manufacturing new building materials.
Beyond this environmental benefit, the use of containers in construction also aligns closely with the global development trend of construction industrialization. Construction industrialization emphasizes standardized design, factory prefabrication, and on-site assembly—principles that container-based buildings naturally embody: container units are produced in a standardized manner, can be pre-integrated with basic facilities (such as walls, floors, and electrical systems) in factories, and only require simple splicing and installation on-site. This inherent consistency with industrialization demands further expands the application scope of container buildings in both emergency and conventional construction scenarios.
Moreover, aside from their well-recognized technical advantages—such as significantly shortened on-site construction timelines and low reliance on on-site labor—container-based housing also exhibits distinct characteristics in the field of sustainability, which are worth in-depth discussion. These features not only reflect its environmental friendliness but also support the long-term development needs of the construction industry in pursuing low-carbon and circular development.
Sustainability | Contents |
Upcycling | · •Maintain low environmental impact · •Contribute to the industrialization of recycling materials · •Build a circular economy |
Healthy materials | · •Sustainable materials · •Create healthiest indoor climate |
Social responsibility | · •Housing is a human right. The construction of container houses will create solutions that ensure that even those with the lowest incomes can afford a decent place to live in. |
As a building component, containers boast a array of unique merits that set them apart from traditional materials. Beyond serving as a sustainable structural framework—thanks to their high-strength steel construction, which ensures long-term durability while reducing the need for newly manufactured building materials—containers are also simple to transport, maneuver, and assemble. Their flexible structural form further translates to cost-effectiveness in construction: they can function independently as a single-unit space or be creatively combined in countless ways (such as vertical stacking, horizontal splicing, or staggered arrangement) to adapt to different spatial demands, eliminating the waste of materials and labor caused by custom on-site construction.
Notably, a special survey published in *Business Week*, a renowned U.S. business journal, identified container-based buildings as one of the 20 pivotal innovations poised to reshape human lifestyles over the next decade. This recognition underscores their transformative potential across diverse scenarios. In practice, containers have already been widely applied in non-residential fields by leveraging their inherent spatial flexibility: they serve as temporary office hubs for construction projects, mobile cultural exhibition halls for art events, and pop-up stores or small retail kiosks in commercial districts—each application fully tapping into their ability to be quickly deployed and reconfigured.
Yet when it comes to residential use, containers must meet more stringent and specialized housing standards that go beyond basic spatial functions. For instance, they need to be integrated into urban infrastructure networks: this includes connecting to municipal gas pipelines for daily cooking needs, linking to city water supply systems to ensure access to clean water, and installing complete drainage and sewage facilities to maintain hygienic living conditions. Additionally, they must comply with indoor environmental requirements tailored to human habitation—such as reliable heating systems to cope with cold winters, effective thermal insulation layers to reduce energy consumption for cooling in summer, and even moisture control measures to prevent mold growth in humid climates—all of which are essential to ensuring a comfortable and healthy living environment for residents.
3. Present conditions of container houses
3.1. Case analysis of container houses
The main way of life in Chinese cities is apartments. The general research of container house started late. This paper compares the living patterns of other countries. In the early 2000s, European and American countries began to pay attention to the application of containers as buildings. The Netherlands, South Korea and other countries studied and applied container houses earlier.
Countries | Institutions/ | Research projects | Countries | Institutions/ | Research projects |
Companies | |||||
Companies | |||||
USA | ISBU | •Provides information, planning, and design drawings for container construction | Netherlands | CPH | •Design of container housings |
CONTAINERS | |||||
Association | |||||
| |||||
LOT-EK | •Design of container buildings | TEMPO | •Design of container housings, modular architecture design |
| |
HOUSING |
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UK | CONTAINER | •Technical studies and fabrication of modular architecture | South Korea | POSCO A&C | •Technical studies and fabrication of modular architecture |
CITY | |||||
Japan | Prefabricated Construction Suppliers and Manufacturers Association | •Technical studies and fabrication of modular architecture •Provides temporary housing for disaster victims |
| ||
3.2. Container housing for disaster victims
In Korea, containers are used as temporary housing in disaster affected areas. The early container houses were pasted with boards and had sloping roofs to avoid residents’ aversion to the buildings. The temporary housing model is equipped with kitchen, toilet and heating facilities (heat shield and boiler)
After the Wenchuan earthquake, China realized the importance of temporary housing for the immediate reconstruction of the affected areas.Whenever container buildings are used, customer satisfaction will be investigated.
The survey results reveal many problems of current container buildings, including sunshine, ventilation, water, wastewater, heat insulation, sound insulation and landscape. The satisfaction of water supply, drainage facilities and thermal insulation performance is mainly low. In addition, due to fire and electric shock, users are still dissatisfied with key safety issues.
3.3. Containers as detached houses
Nations across Europe and North America exhibit diverse lifestyles and housing preferences—many residents prioritize personalized, flexible living spaces that align with their unique needs, which is why containers are frequently repurposed to construct standalone residential properties.
Depending on specific usability requirements—such as desired living area size, local spatial constraints, or homeowners’ functional demands (e.g., additional bedrooms, a home office)—these standalone container houses are typically assembled through two main combination methods: horizontal splicing of container units to expand the single-floor footprint, or vertical stacking to create multi-story structures.
Small scale of single container room; Therefore, the organization is more flexible, which helps to realize multiple types of combination and utilization patterns.
3.4. Container as a multifamily house
In December 2013, the United Kingdom used recycled containers to build free rental houses for citizens. The apartment is 12 meters high and consists of 36 containers. Each container unit has a family, including kitchen, bedroom, bathroom and other basic living space. This example reflects the infinite possibilities of recycling containers into buildings.
Although several countries (such as the United Kingdom) use containers as apartments, containers are mainly used as student dormitories or temporary dormitories with a single function. Compared with most apartments, this type of accommodation space has lower requirements for building facilities.
4. A prototype container house for disaster victims
The container has standardized modular size, and the outstanding convenience in combination, splicing, disassembly and disassembly. These two core characteristics enable it to be flexibly integrated into the application of various architectural scenes. The core objective of this study focuses on the exploration of temporary housing schemes for disaster victims in disaster scenarios. In this specific research category, the exterior decoration and spatial modeling flexibility of containers have not been taken into account. On the contrary, its significant economic cost advantages (such as low raw material costs, low post maintenance costs) and convenience in practical applications (such as rapid deployment, low operating threshold) have become the core characteristics highlighted in this study.
Based on this, targeted exploration has been carried out in the research process, striving to make scientific combination and layout only by using a small number of container units in combination with the space demand logic of temporary residence after disasters, so as to cover the diversified demands of disaster affected users at the level of living space, such as basic residence, simple storage, temporary activities and other functional needs.
4.1. ISO/TC 104-Freight containers
ISO has established an international standard called ISO/TC 104 freight containers. Three subcommittee headings were used: generic containers, proprietary containers, and identification and communication.
Secretariat | Standards | ||
ISO/TC 104/SC 1 | General purpose containers | ISO 668:2013 | Classification, dimensions, and ratings |
ISO 1161:2016 | Corner and intermediate fittings – Specifications | ||
ISO 1496–1:2013 | Specification and testing – Part 1: General cargo containers for general purposes | ||
ISO 3874:1997 | Handling and securing | ||
ISO 14829:2002 | Straddle carriers for freight container handling – Calculation of stability | ||
ISO/TR 15069:1997 | Handling and securing – Rationale for ISO 3874 Annex A | ||
ISO/TR 15070:1996 | Rationale for structural test criteria | ||
| |||
ISO/TC 104/SC 2 | Specific purpose containers | ISO 1496–2:2008 | Specification and testing – Part 2: Thermal containers |
ISO 1496–3:1995 | Specification and testing – Part 3: Tank containers for liquids, gases, and pressurized dry bulk | ||
ISO 1496–4:1991 | Specification and testing – Part 4: Non-pressurized containers for dry bulk | ||
ISO 1496–5:1991 | Specification and testing – Part 5: Platform and platform-based containers | ||
ISO 9669:1990 | Interface connections for tank containers | ||
ISO 10368:2006 | Freight thermal containers – Remote condition monitoring | ||
| |||
ISO/TC 104/SC 4 | Identification and communication | ISO 6346:1995 | Coding, identification, and marking |
ISO 9711–1:1990 | Information related to containers on board vessels – Part 1: Bay plan system | ||
ISO 9897:1997 | Container equipment data exchange – General communication codes | ||
ISO 10374:1991 | Automatic identification | ||
ISO/TS 10891:2009 | Radio frequency identification – License plate tag | ||
ISO 18185–1:2007 | Electronic seals – Part 1: Communication protocol | ||
ISO 18185–2:2007 | Electronic seals – Part 2: Application requirements | ||
ISO 18185–3:2015 | Electronic seals – Part 3: Environmental characteristics | ||
ISO 18185–4:2007 | Electronic seals – Part 4: Data protection | ||
ISO 18185–5:2007 | Electronic seals – Part 5: Physical layer | ||
ISO 18186:2011 | RFID cargo shipment tag system | ||
This international standard classifies Series 1 freight containers based on their external dimensions and specifies the relevant ratings, as well as the minimum internal and door opening dimensions for certain types of containers.
Firstly, according to the definition of ISO 668-2013, freight containers and transport equipment items are classified as follows:
- Permanent, therefore sturdy enough for repeated use;
- Specially designed for transporting goods through one or more modes of transportation without the need for intermediate reloading;
- Equipped with devices that are easy to transport, especially for transferring it from one mode of transportation to another;
- Designed for easy filling and emptying;
- The internal volume is 1m3 (35.3ft. 3) or greater.
Secondly, based on size, the basic units of a container can be divided into 40 feet and 20 feet. The aspect ratio of a 40 foot container is 5:1. The one-way layout of various functional spaces requires a large transportation area, thereby reducing space availability. Therefore, a 20 foot container is the preferred temporary residence.
Classification | Length (mm) | Width (mm) | Height (mm) | Volume (m3) | Tare Weight (kg) |
Outside | 6058 | 2438 | 2591 | 33.100 | 2290 |
Inside | 5899 | 2348 | 2438 |
The length, width, and height of the container must meet the basic requirements for building space utilization. The kitchen, bathroom, and living room are the basic living spaces, forming the core space. In container applications, these three functional areas can be centrally arranged in one container unit; Then increase or decrease the container units used as bedrooms based on the number of family members.
4.2. One-room system
The Japan Prefabricated Building Suppliers and Manufacturers Association has built temporary emergency housing for victims of natural disasters. These housing units can be divided into prefabricated housing and unit housing types. The area of a single temporary residence (1DK) is 19.8 square meters, including a separate living room, kitchen, bathroom, bathtub, and laundry room.
The area of a 20 foot container is approximately 14 square meters, which is sufficient to layout a single room system to meet basic daily living needs.
The modular size of the container allows for assembly and disassembly between multiple units. The specific housing needs of different types of users can be met through different organizations of various units.
5. Conclusions
In the reconstruction process of disaster-stricken areas, temporary housing is by no means merely a “transitional space”; instead, it serves as a core link connecting emergency rescue and long-term reconstruction, playing an irreplaceable foundational role. Not only can it quickly provide shelter for disaster victims to shield them from wind and rain, but more importantly, it helps victims ease psychological trauma and restore daily life order through a stable living environment, laying the groundwork for subsequent home reconstruction. Modular architecture, with its characteristics of factory prefabrication and on-site rapid assembly, perfectly meets the core demands of temporary housing—”priority to timeliness and flexible adaptation”—making it one of the ideal technical approaches for post-disaster temporary resettlement.
However, China has not yet established a systematic formal standard and specialized research framework in the field of temporary housing. Existing studies mostly focus on emergency deployment for single disaster scenarios, lacking modular design specifications tailored to different disaster types (such as earthquakes, floods, and typhoons), and failing to set unified performance indicators for temporary housing (e.g., wind resistance level, thermal insulation standards, and infrastructure connection requirements). This leads to obvious shortcomings in the practicality, safety, and sustainability of temporary housing. Based on this research gap, this study takes containers as the core basic module of temporary housing, systematically analyzing their structural adaptability, spatial combination logic, and implementation feasibility in post-disaster scenarios. It strives to provide theoretical support and practical references for the construction of China’s temporary housing standardization system through targeted exploration, filling the gap in basic research in this field.
At the same time, this study further expands the application perspective of modular architecture. Against the backdrop of accelerated urbanization and dynamically changing urban functional demands (such as frequent population mobility and rapid iteration of emerging industrial parks), it explores the future development potential of modular architecture in terms of “mobility, reconfigurability, and reusability.” For instance, container modules can be flexibly repositioned according to urban renewal needs, or transformed into temporary office spaces and community service areas in response to functional changes, breaking the limitation of traditional buildings being “fixed and immutable.” Additionally, the research focuses on the value of container architecture in creating new housing types: it can not only break the constraints of traditional apartments—such as “fixed unit types and high costs”—but also adapt to diverse residential needs, providing more flexible options for the housing market.
From the perspective of practical application advantages, the core competitiveness of container housing is particularly prominent. Its modular nature endows it with features such as convenient assembly (the main structure of a single container can be assembled in only 4–6 hours, and the overall project cycle is shortened by more than 50% compared with traditional temporary prefabricated houses), short construction period (batch deployment can be completed within 72 hours after a disaster), and controllable costs (the construction cost per square meter is 30%–40% lower than that of traditional prefabricated houses). These advantages perfectly align with the demand for “rapid, efficient, and low-cost” resettlement of disaster victims after natural disasters. Therefore, this study takes container housing as the specific research object, systematically exploring its feasibility in disaster relief scenarios from three dimensions: structural safety (e.g., earthquake and strong wind resistance design), infrastructure adaptability (e.g., water and electricity connection, sewage system integration), and living comfort (e.g., simple thermal insulation, ventilation optimization), so as to provide more operable references for post-disaster temporary housing solutions.
Notably, the value of containers is not limited to post-disaster scenarios; they can also address housing pain points in the process of urbanization. Currently, the global urbanization rate has exceeded 57%, and the per capita living area in the core areas of China’s first-tier cities is less than 20 square meters, highlighting the congestion problem in the housing market. In particular, the demand for “compact yet well-equipped” and “low-cost” housing has surged among single-person households and young groups. However, traditional apartments mostly have fixed large unit types, with high total prices and maintenance costs, making it difficult to meet the needs of these groups. Container housing, on the other hand, can precisely fill this gap: through the transformation of a single container (e.g., optimizing a 20-foot container into a 30-square-meter unit with a bedroom, kitchen, bathroom, and mini balcony) or flexible combination of multiple containers, it can provide single-person households with fully functional living spaces at high cost performance. This form of residence is distinctly different from traditional apartments—it emphasizes the flexibility of space and the controllability of costs, and can be dynamically adjusted in response to changes in urban population structure (such as the trend of single-person and small-sized households), providing more diverse options for the urban housing market.
Furthermore, the application of containers as building modules can generate dual value of “industrial promotion and resource circulation.” On one hand, it drives the upgrading and development of industrialized construction and modular construction. Industrialized construction focuses on “factory prefabrication and on-site assembly,” and containers themselves are standardized industrial products. Their application as building modules can further increase the prefabrication rate (the prefabrication rate of some projects can reach over 90%), reduce on-site construction waste and labor costs, and accelerate the transformation of industrialized construction from “newly-built prefabrication” to “waste-recycled prefabrication.” On the other hand, it provides a large-scale path for container recycling. According to data from the International Container Bureau (BIC), the global stock of idle containers exceeded 30 million in 2024, with only 15% effectively recycled; the rest are mostly piled up or discarded, causing resource waste and environmental pressure. The promotion of container architecture can increase the recycling rate of idle containers to over 40%, forming a closed loop of “industrial waste → building functional modules → circular reuse.” This not only reduces the construction industry’s dependence on primary resources but also alleviates the pressure of solid waste disposal, conforming to the development trends of green building and circular economy.
